Tampilkan postingan dengan label Kumpulan Artikel bahasa inggris dan tesis. Tampilkan semua postingan
Tampilkan postingan dengan label Kumpulan Artikel bahasa inggris dan tesis. Tampilkan semua postingan

Sabtu, 28 Juni 2014

KUMPULAN ARTIKEL BAHASA INGGRIS TERBARU PENDIDIKAN GURU

How does the teacher's Desired State?  
 
When the quality of education in this country collapsed from the previous year, the teachers blamed, even some people and social institutions say no incompetent teachers work, but when the quality of education goes up, instead of the Minister of Education who received praise and awards, when it was as if the teacher never there and meritorious.
On the other hand the teacher is always required to teach as much as possible, the system 24 hours per week is also applied, in order to fulfill his obligations as a teacher of teachers, when 24 hours is not sufficient, then the teachers who have allowances, benefits can not be taken, when in fact a teacher saw it struggling with a wide range of behavior of students.
Not to mention the teachers who teach in remote areas and the conflict, when the military emergency in Aceh decades ago, the teacher must teach braved bullets whistle for the sake of the nation, interrogated by various parties, creep and hit the floor when gunfire, not to mention there are kidnapped and beaten.
Mileage distant, like a puddle of muddy terrain, this is the reality of teachers in the border area, for the sake of the future they are willing to teach as officials reluctant to it, but right now they want taken away and raped by those who have only been on the loveseat.

Most Teachers in Children tirikan
Joint Decree (SKB) 5 Minister of the Distribution of Teachers considered detrimental to teachers for implementation requirements will cut 24 teaching hours and the dismissal of thousands of part time teachers.
Chairman of the Federation of Indonesian Teachers Union (FSGI) Listyarti Retno said, teachers must teach a minimum of 24 hours and a maximum of 40 hours to get the benefits of certification, (Neng Zubaidah, Okezone, 2012).
Seeing this phenomenon, it is very difficult to get teachers 24 hours per week, especially those who teach in rural, underprivileged, while many students, but the constraints of inadequate classrooms and educational facilities as it is, and vice versa, yet again they are honor, willing to devote themselves for the betterment of education even though they are not paid.
On the one hand the government wants to improve the quality of teacher certification by providing benefits, but on the other side as if the program is half-hearted, giving teachers the difficulty and exhaustion so that there are teachers who have passed the certification but can not take these benefits, since they are located in schools which only has six classrooms.
Not to mention with the implementation of Curriculum 2013, which was passed by M. Noah as Minister of Education, the curriculum when there are teachers who are oppressed by the loss subjects, plus the problem of shortage of hours. Services as if they were fighting in an era of conflict and in rural areas are not appreciated, and forgotten. Though they had been taught before becoming Minister of Education M. Noah.
Teachers eliminated in the subject area curriculum in 2013, screaming in the liver, with a thousand doubts they await the days when they were executed, as if waiting for someone who was nad'a Azrael to take their lives, like the terrorists who beheaded waiting to die, teaching but there is no tranquility.
As policy makers, should they not hand clapping, selfish implement the program next party without seeing how many people are sacrificed, compare how much you pay each month, O take and how policy makers of their salary per month, it also wants you to trim by removing the eye their lessons, when the heart is not through education programs, it will be so much hurt and struggled.

Civilization Education to Improve Quality
Improving the quality of education, not necessarily by requiring teachers to teach 24 hours per Sunday or remove most of the subjects so that there are teachers who sacrificed, but improve education is to provide training to teachers in accordance with the department, supervise them closely, so they were taught by wholeheartedly and appropriate knowledge, provide complete facilities for every school in the whole of Indonesia and provide welfare to the They suit the needs of the.
Civilization education by making education the container it is really a place to gain knowledge, not as a business most people, both at the central level to the teachers and students themselves. The decision makers do not vary the curriculum curriculum to another because they want to be him as a drafter and inspiration, the teachers do not just relying on the salary, but they are more involved in education, students do not just expect belajarpun poor scholarship without regard to the quality and capability they absorb the learning content.
Manners and morals all very influential element in improving the quality of education, policy makers, teachers and students should have the manners and morals, thus carry out the mandate in the nation, they are equally responsible for the progress of this country. It is impossible to be born good generation in the system when it is populated by people who are not good.
On October 22, 2002, the Government of the Republic of Indonesia, enacted the Child Protection Act (Law no. 23 of 2002 on Child Protection). Since the enactment of the Act, teachers have started reluctant to punish students, although the students acting as his will, but every punishment they give instead of blindly or to kill, but to motivate students who are misbehaving so serious.
Child protection law, in particular article 13 paragraph (1), states that every child while under the care of parents, guardians, or other party responsible for the care, are entitled to protection from abuse:
a. discrimination;
b. exploitation, both economic and sexual;
c. neglect;
d. cruelty, violence, and persecution;
e. injustice; and a misconduct described in Article 13 paragraph (1) above to be reaffirmed in Article 16 paragraph (1) and (2) which reads:
1. Every child is entitled to protection from mistreatment, torture, or inhuman sentencing.
2. Every child is entitled to freedom in accordance with the law.
With the law, as if the child is left and pampered, this causes the low quality of education in the regions and the inland regions of conflict ever, because the child's mental attitude and the area was loud and rebellious, even if mothers feel less valuable to them.
Personally I am not legalize violence teachers to their students, but there are areas that we really need to give a deterrent effect to meraka so they want to learn, if we teach children choices, such fine may not need to apply, but each area is different and intelligence child's willingness to learn, and this is a PR us all, whether we need a reliable and qualified generation, or generations always aided when the UN.

Minggu, 22 Juni 2014

CONTOH ARTIKEL BAHASA INGGRIS TENTANG LUMPUR LAPINDO

Mount SindoroWaterford - Mount Sindoro activity at the border and Waterford Wonosobo, Central Java is still fluctuating. Center for Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation (PVMBG) with Pennyelidikan and Development Center Kegunangapian (BPPTK) Yogyakarta on Sunday (11/12/2011) put up as many as six types of volcano monitoring tool.
The six types of tools that are short period seismographs (3 pieces), seismograft broadband (2 pieces), tiltmeter (one piece), electronic distance measurement (EDM) with two reflectors, infrared cameras (one piece) and a mini differential optical absorption spectrometer (DOAS ) of the fruit.
Regarding the installation of six types of monitoring equipment was delivered by Officer Observation Post Mount Sindoro and Cleft (PGSS) Gentingsari Village, District Bansari, Waterford, Java Sumaryanto told AFP on Sunday (11/12/2011).
"Sindoro still tend to fluctuate (up and down) activity). So now mounted as many as six tools to monitor them closely and tightly, "said Sumaryanto.
Sumaryanto reveals the latest data, on December 10, 2011 Sindoro activity remained level II alert status. The air temperature is 24-28 degrees Celsius, relative humidity 78-81 percent. The seismic data recorded earthquake appears nine times in the volcanic (VA), 22 shallow volcanic quakes (VB) and gusts of 27 earthquakes.
Previously on December 8, 2011 uHow temperature of 23-28 degrees Celsius relative humidity between 80-82 percent. The seismic data recorded a tectonic earthquake keali away, one local tectonic earthquakes and gusts of 11 times.
Then on December 9th, 2011, temperatures between 24-26 degrees Celsius, relative humidity between 79-83 percent. The seismic data recorded one tectonic away, one local tectonic earthquakes, earthquake blast five times and one time the earthquake tremors.
Kasub Volcanic Field Observations and Investigations of the Western Conference Bandung PVMBG Hendra Gunawan explained sixth tool was installed in the region as well as the peaks and slopes Sindoro at Monitoring Post Mount Sindoro.
Seismograft short period and broadband seismographs to monitor seismic activity, and EDM tiltmeter to measure the pressure of steam and hot animali top of the mountain region.
"This tool to facilitate decision-making," said Hendra Gunawan.
Hendra Gunawan menungkapkan actually the sixth tool should already be installed on Saturday (10/12/2011) yesterday. However, due to the new officers of Yogyakarta BPPTK come today then it came directly mounted officers.
"Once installed it will immediately be operated to start monitoring Sindoro mountain in detail," Gunawan Hendro turu.
Hendro pemauntauan adding this tool will also be connected to pemauntauan Mount Merapi in the village Babadan, Shaman District, Magelang, Central Java. From there it can be monitored seismic activity that occurred mengenaik in Sindoro.
"Only kegempaanya activity can be monitored in Mount Merapi monitoring post in the Post Babadan, Magelang," said Hendro.
FIVE YEARS Lapindo tragedy: GEOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVEDr. Andang Bachtiar(Arema, an independent geologist, IAGI Advisory Council Chairman, Chairman of Exploration Think Tank Indonesia)FlashbackMount mud (mud-volcano) is the expression of the soil surface (and under the sea) of the emergence of silt derived from the high pressure under the earth's surface. Often the mud volcanoes associated with geological natural causes, because before the incident bursts Louise May 29, 2006, the repertoire of the world rarely documented in scientific literature emergence cases mud volcano triggered by human activity. Because the incidence of emergence in Sidoarjo mud volcano was first in the vicinity of the drilling the Banjar Panji-1, which at the time was having trouble "loss": and "kick" followed by "underground blow-out" (wild bursts below the surface), then linking as a trigger for the mud volcano is very logical.When I first interviewed by the local newspaper about this Surabaya, June 2, 2006, I also have been told that the initial phenomenon of the mud flow is due to wild bursts beneath the surface since that time I had visited the location of the edge of the highway when going to Malang, the city my birth. The phenomenon of surface is almost similar to wild bursts of drilling events that I experienced myself when working in East Kalimantan as a wellsite geologist Huffco 1985. Similarly, the initial opinion of the geology of the Lapindo itself ahli2 which time it had kontak2an with me, and also information on the website EMP (which now been removed) which states that there is communication from the drill hole to the center of explosion within a few hundred meters away from the BJP-one time overcoming the pressure of the well done. The opinion then was first formalized in the form of publications by Richard Davies et al (2007) in the journal GSA Today 17 (2): 4.Over time, geologist2 in Lapindo-began to change his views. Together with leading geologist of BP Migas, Oslo and Japan are facilitated to conduct a review - research in bursts and the surrounding areas, rival publications come out that says that earthquakes, tectonic maturity, and - specifically-motion horizontal fracture stress in the area Porong was the cause of the appearance of the mud volcano.Along with time as well, until now I still contend that the drilling process in the BJP-1 is the trigger of the emergence of the Lusi mud volcano, in line with Davies et al argument2 described, and also the observation that I did on real time drilling charts shown by the police to I 2007-2008.OFF SHOWER?Technical effort to turn off bursts LuSi CAN NOT be separated from the handling of social problems. MUST BE ONE PACKAGE. If not, then do not even think to turn it off. If social issues such as payment of compensation which terkatung2 because the government is very tolerant of performance Lapindo not be dealt promise it is guaranteed that all the engineering effort will be made to experience obstacles in the field. That's what happened today. Although it has been said SBY felt prompted many people from outside and inside which was inspired by the successful handling of a blow out in Montara (NWShelf) and Horizon (Gulf of Mexico) to start thinking again about the source of the deadly blast LuSi, he still can not run as president dr the fact that the handling of social issues until Lusi is still in shambles. So dr awal2 like this before the president is influenced by many parties for undue haste in adopting successful well kill NWShelf or GOM for Lusi, I shout everywhere: beresi also compensation and other social masalah2 (transfer of population, education, highways jams, etc.). Do not just focus tinggi2 talk about the technical. Let the issues be discussed and planned technical expert, but social problems must be escorted and forced to be dealt as soon as possible, so that later on this technical effort diridhloi and ill get public nuisanceBased on scientific technical agreement and keeping-me times discussed at the level of professional associations and among experts lembaga2 government, stated that the first technical effort that is done within the framework headed hrs planning to killing source (not well, because wellnya is no longer kliatan?) Dr is LuSi acquisition of 3D seismic data with a special design such as those designed by kawan2 BPPT SDH and SDH Elnusa and endorsed by forum2 IAGI and HAGI within various occasions within the past 2 years. This new data acquisition becomes very crucial krn will provide a new picture of the subsurface conditions under which LuSi during dikira2 this can only be by various groups, including by the drilling engineer who tried to shut off the well planned drilling program of BJP-1 (mrk using data2 dr drilling engineering BJP-1, tp still need to be corroborated by recent data of 3D seismic to confirm).Data integration and interpretation of new 3D seismic TSB absolutely must be done with the data engineering dar BJP-1 and Relief well afterwards and also dr shallow surface geophysical geological data that was acquired in the fourth year of this erakhir.Especially for professional associations such as IAGI, HAGI, and IATMI, please do not skewed in expressing a variety of technical and interpretation of data, do not repeat the previous kesalahan2 that only one side in favor of certain expert opinions, while significantly growing argument2 the counter dr pendapat2 . Let both these opinions evolve as the line of reasoning can be will benefit the deadly blast mitigation plan later. Let later in the level of decision-making do excercise which is called as: "the probability or uncertainity management", ie making decisions based on uncertainty theory dr various causes and conditions under the circumstances LuSi surfaces. Of course, the decision-making sequence contained more benefit principle drpd harm.CURRENTCurrently an effort to see how far the subsurface damage dg sdg within a 3D seismic survey planning, design, dissemination, and tender. 3D seismic survey is under the coordination and budget Geology and Mineral Resources Board, assisted by the voluntary ; expectations: the end of 2011 a new image sdh subusrface there, so that:

    
1) Pihak2 who feel bhw bursts can be turned off dg drilling or other technical proposals could  with subsurface data that more clearly, not only asumsi2 alone (which is often the other dg also berbeda2), or even can also cancel krn see his damage sdh multi-field, BKN only a single field; so the "cost benefit" was not matched
    
2) Can be made predictive modeling analysis of subsidence / land subsidence, up in the surface area where the possibility of damage and how the level of danger that can be made risk maps - new-zoning - which is more updated based on data from the subsurface, paddling hrs each yr replaced dg perpres such as for this to happen.
    
3) Replace the loss or displacement of people and for a long term management plan area they will be "once for all" solution when using the above results no.2
My proposal: it is just that all affected residents around the area coupled with the team of Dr. independent survey of East Java last year and of the results of the hazard evaluation of 3D later, all replaced to complete dg-loss using existing money (dr government borrowing (?) who later charged pd next Lapindo and its management)Later, the area was abandoned administered by a specialized agency (authority?) For research, travel, and other exploration activities whenever possible ...Very likely be done again later exploration and potential exploitation of oil and gas reserves under the mudflow area. Because the probability of the presence of oil and gas reserves (mainly gas) is very big here. Lapindo or anyone interested in helping government affairs in compensation and the mass evacuation could possibly wish to calculate the return on their social investment today.Jakarta, May 23, 2011ADB

Senin, 16 Juli 2012

kumpulan artikel bahasa inggris terbaru



Good morning everybody..nice too meet you in my simple blog..
Today I want continue my article before..other time, we have discuss about my research proposal and now  I want try share a little my assignment in my college.. we will talk about..psycholinguistic.. so if you interested read it..i said thank you guys..

PSYCHOLINGUISTIC
Psycholinguistics or psychology of language is the study of the psychological and neurobiologicalfactors that enable humans to acquire, use, comprehend and produce language. Initial forays into psycholinguistics were largely philosophical ventures, due mainly to a lack of cohesive data on how the human brain functioned. Modern research makes use of biology, neuroscience, cognitive science, linguistics, and information theory to study how the brain processes language. There are a number of subdisciplines with non-invasive techniques for studying the neurological workings of the brain; for example, neurolinguisticshas become a field in its own right.
Psycholinguistics covers the cognitive processes that make it possible to generate a grammatical and meaningful sentence out of vocabulary and grammatical structures, as well as the processes that make it possible to understand utterances, words, text, etc. Developmental psycholinguistics studies children's ability to learn language.

Areas of study

Psycholinguistics is an interdisciplinary field. Hence, it is studied by researchers from a variety of different backgrounds, such as psychology, cognitive science, linguistics, and speech and language pathology. Psycholinguists study many different topics, but these topics can generally be divided into answering the following questions: (1) how do children acquire language (language acquisition)?; (2) how do people process and comprehend language (language comprehension)?; (3) how do people produce language (language production)?; and (4) how do adults acquire a new language (second language acquisition)?
Subdivisions in psycholinguistics are also made based on the different components that make up human language.
Linguistics-related areas:
  • Phonetics and phonology are concerned with the study of speech sounds. Within psycholinguistics, research focuses on how the brain processes and understands these sounds.
  • Morphology is the study of word structures, especially the relationships between related words (such as dog and dogs) and the formation of words based on rules (such as plural formation).
  • Syntax is the study of the patterns which dictate how words are combined to form sentences.
  • Semantics deals with the meaning of words and sentences. Where syntax is concerned with the formal structure of sentences, semantics deals with the actual meaning of sentences.
  • Pragmatics is concerned with the role of context in the interpretation of meaning.
A researcher interested in language comprehension may study wordrecognition during reading to examine the processes involved in the extraction of orthographic, morphological, phonological, and semanticinformation from patterns in printed text. A researcher interested in language production might study how words are prepared to be spoken starting from the conceptual or semantic level. Developmental psycholinguistics study infants' and children's ability to learn and process language.

Theories

In this section, some influential theories are discussed for each of the fundamental questions listed in the section above.

Language acquisition

There are essentially two schools of thought as to how children acquire or learn language, and there is still much debate as to which theory is the correct one. The first theory states that all language must be learned by the child. The second view states that the abstract system of language cannot be learned, but that humans possess an innate language faculty, or an access to what has been called universal grammar. The view that language must be learned was especially popular before 1960 and is well represented by the mentalistic theories of Jean Piaget and the empiricist Rudolf Carnap. Likewise, the school of psychology known as behaviorism (see Verbal Behavior(1957) by B.F. Skinner) puts forth the point of view that language is a behavior shaped by conditioned response, hence it is learned.
The innatist perspective began with Noam Chomsky's highly critical review of Skinner's book in 1959.[1] This review helped to start what has been termed "the cognitive revolution" in psychology. Chomsky posited humans possess a special, innate ability for language and that complex syntactic features, such as recursion, are "hard-wired" in the brain. These abilities are thought to be beyond the grasp of the most intelligent and social non-humans. According to Chomsky, children acquiring a language have a vast search space to explore among all possible human grammars, yet at the time there was no evidence that children receive sufficient input to learn all the rules of their language (see poverty of the stimulus). Hence, there must be some other innate mechanism that endows a language ability to humans. Such a language faculty is, according to the innatist theory, what defines human language and makes it different from even the most sophisticated forms of animal communication.
The field of linguistics and psycholinguistics since then has been defined by reactions to Chomsky, pro and con. The pro view still holds that the human ability to use language (specifically the ability to use recursion) is qualitatively different from any sort of animal ability.[2] This ability may have resulted from a favorable mutation or from an adaptation of skills evolved for other purposes. The view that language can be learned has had a recent resurgence inspired by emergentism. This view challenges the "innate" view as scientifically unfalsifiable; that is to say, it can't be tested. With the amount of computer power increasing since the 1980’s, researchers have been able to simulate language acquisition using neural network models.[3] These models provide evidence that there may, in fact, be sufficient information contained in the input to learn language, even syntax. If this is true, then an innate mechanism is no longer necessary to explain language acquisition.

Language comprehension

One question in the realm of language comprehension is how people understand sentences as they read (also known as sentence processing). Experimental research has spawned a number of theories about the architecture and mechanisms of sentence comprehension. Typically these theories are concerned with what types of information contained in the sentence the reader can use to build meaning, and at what point in reading does that information become available to the reader. Issues such as "modular" versus "interactive" processing have been theoretical divides in the field.
A modular view of sentence processing assumes that the stages involved in reading a sentence function independently in separate modules. These modulates have limited interaction with one another. For example, one influential theory of sentence processing, the garden-path theory[4], states that syntactic analysis takes place first. Under this theory as the reader is reading a sentence, he or she creates the simplest structure possible in order to minimize effort and cognitive load. This is done without any input from semantic analysis or context-dependent information. Hence, in the sentence "The evidence examined by the lawyer turned out to be unreliable," by the time the reader gets to the word "examined" he or she has committed to a reading of the sentence in which the evidence is examining something because it is the simplest parse. This commitment is made despite the fact that it results in an implausible situation; we know that experience that evidence can rarely if ever examine something. Under this "syntax first" theory, semantic information is processed at a later stage. It is only later that the reader will recognize that her or she needs to revise the initial parse into one in which "the evidence" is being examined. In this example, readers typically recognize their misparse by the time they reach "by the lawyer" and must go back and re-parse the sentence.[5] This reanalysis is costly and contributes to slower reading times.
In contrast to a modular account, an interactive theory of sentence processing, such as a constraint-based lexical approach[6] assumes that all available information contained within a sentence can be processed at any time. Under an interactive account, for example, the semantics of a sentence (such as plausibility) can come into play early on in order to help determine the structure of a sentence. Hence, in the sentence above, the reader would be able to make use of plausibility information in order to assume that "the evidence" is being examined instead of doing the examining. There are data to support both modular and interactive accounts; which account is the correct one is still up for debate.

Methodologies

Many of the experiments conducted in psycholinguistics, especially earlier on, are behavioral in nature. In these types of studies, subjects are presented with linguistic stimuli and asked to perform an action. For example, they may be asked to make a judgment about a word (lexical decision), reproduce the stimulus, or name a visually presented word aloud). Reaction times to respond to the stimuli(usually on the order of milliseconds) and proportion of correct responses are the most often employed measures of performance in behavioral tasks. Such experiments often take advantage of priming effects, whereby a "priming" word or phrase appearing in the experiment can speed up the lexical decision for a related "target" word later.[7]
As an example of how behavioral methods can be used in psycholinguistics research, Fischler (1977) investigated word encoding using the lexical decision task. She asked participants to make decisions about whether two strings of letters were English words. Sometimes the strings would be actual English words requiring a "yes" response, and other times they would be nonwords requiring a "no" response. A subset of the licit words were related semantically (e.g., cat-dog) while others were unrelated (e.g., bread-stem). Fischler found that related word pairs were responded to faster when compared to unrelated word pairs. This facilitation suggests that semantic relatedness can facilitate word encoding.[8]

Issues and areas of research

Psycholinguistics is concerned with the nature of the computations and processes that the brain undergoes to comprehend and produce language. For example, the cohort model seeks to describe how words are retrieved from the mental lexicon when an individual hears or sees linguistic input.[7][13]
Recent research using new non-invasiveimaging techniques seeks to shed light on just where certain language processes occur in the brain.
There are a number of unanswered questions in psycholinguistics, such as whether the human ability to use syntax is based on innate mental structures or emerges from interaction with other humans, and whether some animals can be taught the syntax of human language.
Two other major subfields of psycholinguistics investigate first language acquisition, the process by which infants acquire language, and second language acquisition. In addition, it is much more difficult for adults to acquire second languagesthan it is for infants to learn their first language (bilingual infants are able to learn both of their native languages easily). Thus, sensitive periodsmay exist during which language can be learned readily.[14] A great deal of research in psycholinguistics focuses on how this ability develops and diminishes over time. It also seems to be the case that the more languages one knows, the easier it is to learn more.[15]
The field of aphasiology deals with language deficits that arise because of brain damage. Studies in aphasiology can both offer advances in therapy for individuals suffering from aphasia, and further insight into how the brain processes language.



In general, psycholinguistic studies have revealed that many of the concepts employed in the analysis of sound structure, word structure, and sentence structure also play a role in language processing. However, an account of language processing also requires that we understand how these linguistic concepts interact with other aspects of human processing to enable language production and comprehension."
(William O'Grady, et al., Contemporary Linguistics: An Introduction. Bedford/St. Martin's, 2001)
Psycholinguistics . . . draws on ideas and knowledge from a number of associated areas, such as phonetics, semantics and pure linguistics. There is a constant exchange of information between psycholinguists and those working in neurolinguistics, who study how language is represented in the brain. There are also close links with studies in artificial intelligence. Indeed, much of the early interest in language processing derived from the AI goals of designing computer programs that can turn speech into writing and programs that can recognize the human voice."
(John Field, Psycholinguistics: A Resource Book for Students. Routledge, 2003)
Psycholinguistics is a branch of study which combines the disciplines of psychology and linguistics. It is concerned with the relationship between the human mind and the language as it examines the processes that occur in brain while producing and perceiving both written and spoken discourse. What is more, it is interested in the ways of storing lexical items and syntactic rules in mind, as well as the processes of memory involved in perception and interpretation of texts. Also, the processes of speaking and listening are analyzed, along with language acquisition and language disorders.




Psycholinguistics as a separate branch of study emerged in the late 1950s and 1960s as a result of Chomskyan revolution. The ideas presented by Chomsky became so important that they quickly gained a lot of publicity and had a big impact on a large number of contemporary views on language. Consequently also psycholinguists started investigating such matters as the processing of deep and surface structure of sentences. In the early years of development of psycholinguistics special experiments were designed in order to examine if the focus of processing is the deep syntactic structure. On the basis of transformation of sentences it was initially discovered that the ease of processing was connected with syntactic complexity. However, later on it became clear that not only syntactic complexity adds to the difficulty of processing, but also semantic factors have a strong influence on it.
All the same, certain principles of sentence processing that were formulated at that time are still valid. One of them, namely the principle of minimal attachmentmeans that when processing a sentence which could have multiple meanings people most frequently tend to choose the simplest meaning, or the meaning that in syntactic analysis would present the simplest parse tree with fewest nodes. Thus, a sentence ‘Mary watched the man with the binoculars’ by most language users would be interpreted that it was Mary, and not the man, who was using binoculars. One other principle worth noting is the principle of late closurewhich states that there is a tendency to join the new information to the current phrase, or clause, which explains why in a sentence such as ‘John said he will leave this morning’ the phrase ‘this morning’ would be understood as relating to the verb ‘leave’ and not to ‘said’.
Other psycholinguistic investigations into how processing of texts occurs led to conclusions that complex sentences with multiple clauses are interpreted faster and with less mental effort when the clauses are not reduced. When it comes to speech the experiments show that the interpretation of sentences can vary depending on the placing of pauses, or disfluencies. Additionally, is has been proven that visual contact between speakers also has a strong influence on the ease, or difficulty of processing texts. During experiments subjects were listening to some sentences and those who saw the speaker could understand what the speech was about better, while those who did not see him often had difficulties with it.
The recent tendencies in psycholinguistics show increasing interest in discourse processing, and in particular in the ways readers create a mental representation of the narrative world. The focus of interest is on the role of readers’ schemata and the problem of inferences about the read subject matter. It has been proved that certain inferences are made in the very process of reading, while others are made later in order to resolve some problems or inconsistencies. The issues of background knowledge and automaticity of drawing inferences are still being investigated.

 

References

1.      ^ Chomsky, N; Skinner, B. F. (1959). "A Review of B. F. Skinner's Verbal Behavior". Language(Linguistic Society of America) 35 (1): 26–58. doi:10.2307/411334. ISSN 0097-8507. JSTOR 411334.
2.      ^ Hauser M.D., Chomsky N., Fitch W. (2002). Science 298 (5598): 1569–79. doi:10.1126/science.298.5598.1569. PMID 12446899.
3.      ^ Elman, Jeffrey; Bates Elizabeth, Johnson Mark, Karmiloff-Smith Annette, Parisi Domenico, Plunkett Kim (1998). Rethinking innateness: A connectionist perspective on development. The MIT Press.
4.      ^ Frazier L., Rayner, K. (1982). "Making and correcting errors during sentence comprehension: Eye movements in the analysis of structurally ambiguous sentences". Cognitive psychology 14 (2): 178–210.
5.      ^ Rayner K., Carlson M., Frazier L. (1983). "The interaction of syntax and semantics during sentence processing: Eye movements in the analysis of semantically biased sentences". Journal of verbal learning and verbal behavior 22(3): 358–374.
6.      ^ Trueswell J., Tanenhaus M. (1994). "Toward a lexical framework of constraint-based syntactic ambiguity resolution". Perspectives on sentence processing: 155–179.
7.      ^ a b Packard, Jerome L(2000). "Chinese words and the lexicon." The Morphology of Chinese: A Linguistic and Cognitive Approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 284-309.
8.      ^ {Fischler I. (1977). "Semantic facilitation without association in a lexical decision task". Memory & Cognition5 (3): 335-339.
9.      ^ Rayner K. (1978). "Eye movements in reading and information processing". Psychological Bulletin 85(3): 618–660. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.85.3.618. PMID 353867.
10.  ^ Tanenhaus M. K., Spivey-Knowlton M. J., Eberhard K. M., Sedivy J. E. (1995). "Integration of visual and linguistic information in spoken language comprehension". Science 268(5217): 1632–1634. doi:10.1126/science.7777863. PMID 7777863.

Senin, 09 Juli 2012

THE ADVANTAGES OF COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING


 

THE ADVANTAGES OF COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING

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Good morning all my friends’….

For this tine, I will continue my article before, yesterday we have talk about communicative approach, and for this week, I want share and release my other article under title the advantages of communicative language teaching.. in other to can be reference for all of you, if you want know what is communicative approach that. So? enjoy read guys ????....

The Advantages of Communicative Language Teaching

Introduction

As a teacher trainer working with international groups, I am frequently asked to include an overview of communicative language teaching (CLT), and discuss ways of adapting materials to make lessons more communicative or interactive.

Most groups are enthusiastic about the lesson opportunities which CLT offers. However, some also indicated they felt constrained by the system under which they operated, especially those teaching in settings which are particularly exam-focused. In addition, they queried the relevance of CLT to their situation, where many of the students never used English outside the classroom. In contrast, I had shifted across a spectrum of learners, enthusiastically taking CLT along with me as universally appropriate.


Taking my colleagues' concerns on board, I began to question the appropriateness of CLT for some of these diverse learner groups. This was supported by current reading on the topic; the titles of some articles (see the Reference list) made me think I should give up the support for CLT then and there. However, the more I read on the topic, the more I defended the continued suitability of CLT. It really does benefit the students in a variety of ways.

Elements of CLT

Communication – According to Ability

Whether CLT should be considered an approach or a methodology is a more abstract debate and here I want to deal with its more practical aspects. In fact, it is those very elements, and the name itself, which have been used to challenge the future relevance of CLT. Firstly, the label implies a focus on communication and some might argue that this method can't be employed genuinely with low levels as there is no authentic communication, due to a limited vocabulary and restricted range of functions. Initially, many of a learner's utterances are very formulaic. As an aside, consider just what percentage of our own English expressions are unique, and how often we rely on a set phrase; just because it is delivered unselfconsciously and with natural intonation does not make it original.  The aim is that the length and complexity of exchanges, and confident delivery, will grow with the student's language ability.


With the emphasis on communication, there is also the implication that spoken exchanges should be authentic and meaningful; detractors claim that the artificial nature of classroom–based (i.e. teacher - created) interactions makes CLT an oxymoron. Nevertheless, a proficient teacher will provide a context so that class interactions are realistic and meaningful but with the support needed to assist students to generate the target language. We need to consider that producing language is a skill and when we learn a skill we practise in improvised settings. For example, before a nurse gives a real injection, they have punctured many a piece of fruit to hone their technique.


Accuracy as Well as Fluency

It might also be argued that the extent of some of the structures or functions may never be used in real life. One example is adjective order; I have given students an exercise where they have to produce a phrase with a string of adjectives, such as "a strong, orange, Norwegian, canvas tent."   This is very unnatural, as most times we only combine two or three adjectives. The other example is directions – we have students follow a map and negotiate exhaustive directions which suggest maze-like complexity. In reality, most of us probably are only involved in a three-phase set of directions. In fact, what we are doing with these exercises is exposing students to patterns which they can later activate.

This focus on accuracy versus fluency is one of the issues not often considered in a discussion of CLT. The teacher decides to pay attention to one or other end of this band, depending on the type of lesson, or the stage of a particular lesson, and accuracy is their choice if they want to deal with students getting things right, take an opportunity for correction, or gauge the success of their teaching, for example. Freer speaking involves more choice, therefore more ambiguity, and less teacher intervention. While CLT implies the lessons are more student-centred, this does not mean they are un-structured. The teacher does have a very important role in the process, and that is setting up activities so that communication actually happens. There is a lot of preparation; accuracy practice is the bridge to a fluency activity. By implication, CLT involves equipping students with vocabulary, structures and functions, as well as strategies, to enable them to interact successfully.


The reference to strategies introduces the matter of grammatical versus communicative competence. If we view the two as mutually exclusive, then we are likely to champion one over the other, in terms of approach, curriculum or whatever else determines and defines our classroom teaching. In fact, Canale and Swain's model of communicative competence, referred to by Guangwei Hu, includes four sub-categories, namely grammatical, sociolinguistic discourse and strategic. They consider someone competent in English should demonstrate both rules of grammar and use.

Promoting Learning

This returns us to the consideration of who we are teaching, and why. Are our students aiming to learn or acquire English? Do they need to know lexical items and linguistic rules as a means of passing an exam, or do they want to be able to interact in English?  For those inclined to maintain the dichotomy between learning and acquisition, and who argue that our primary focus is learners, CLT still has relevance. It is timely to review an early definition of CLT. According to Richards and Rodgers, in Guangwei Hu, CLT is basically about promoting learning.


Then again, Mark Lowe suggests that we follow Halliday's lead and drop the distinction between learning and acquisition, and refer to language mastery instead. After all, if the students master the language, they will certainly be able to perform better in exams, if that is their goal. In addition, those who do see a purpose beyond classroom-related English will be better equipped for using the language socially. 

Motivation 

One of the constant discussions in all my teacher training groups was how to motivate students. This suggests that the focus on passing the exam was not always enough. Motivation relates to engaging students but also includes confidence building. If there is a climate of trust and support in the classroom, then students are more likely to contribute. One way of developing this is to allow pair-checking of answers before open-class checking occurs. Another way is to include an opportunity for students to discuss a topic in small groups before there is any expectation that they speak in front of the whole class. Evelyn Doman suggests that "The need for ongoing negotiation during interaction increases the learners' overt participation..." It is this involvement we need to harness and build on.

Sometimes the participation is hardly what we would define as 'negotiation', but merely a contribution. For a few students, just uttering a word or a phrase can be an achievement. Indeed, some of the teachers in the training sessions said this was the goal they set for their more reticent pupils. And I have had students who, after writing their first note or e-mail in English, expressed their pride at being able to do so.


If teachers consider an activity to be irrelevant or not engaging enough, there are many other tasks which may be more appropriate, such as surveys, using a stimulus picture and prompt questions (Who... Where... When...What...), or a series of pictures which need to be sequenced before a story is discussed. In this respect, CLT addresses another area which constantly challenges teachers, the mixed-ability class. When the lesson progresses to a freer-speaking activity, students can contribute according to their ability and confidence, although I acknowledge both need to be stretched. So there is a challenge for the more capable students, while those with an average ability still feel their effort is valid. This compares with the less creative opportunities offered by some textbooks, where students read a dialogue, perhaps doing a substitution activity, for example.


A basic responsibility is considering and responding to the needs of our students, so if the course book is inadequate we need to employ the following steps: select, adapt, reject and supplement.  Moreover, because each class we teach has its own characteristics and needs, CLT will vary each time we employ it.

Conclusion

Too often, a 'new' approach appears to completely dismiss the previous one. This is not always the intention, but probably more a result of the enthusiasm of practitioners exploring and implementing fresh activities or opportunities. Also, throughout the CLT debate, there seem to be dichotomies which are employed to argue for its irrelevance. It is evident that CLT has gathered a range of characteristics, perhaps more through misunderstanding or by association, but it is actually not as incompatible with other valued practices as it is sometimes made to appear. In practical terms, whether assisting mixed-ability classes, aiding motivation, leading from a focus on form to one of fluency, or supporting learning, it has a lot to offer the EFL teacher.

References

  • Andrewes, Simon (2005) The CLT Police: Questioning the communicative approach. Modern English Teacher  Vol 14. No 2.
  • Doman, Evelyn (2005) Current Debates in SLA.  Asian EFL Journal Vol 7. Issue 4.  Article 8 Retrieved October 20, 2006 from http://www.asian-efl-journal.com/ December_05_ed.php
  • Hu, Guangwei (2002) Potential Cultural Resistance to Pedagogical Imports: The Case of Communicative Language Teaching in China. Language, Culture and Curriculum Retrieved October 20, 2006 from http://www.multilingual-matters.net/lcc/015/0093/lcc0150093.pdf
  • Lowe, Mark (2005) The Shibboleths of TEFL: Straightening out our thinking Modern English Teacher  Vol 14, No 1.

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